Medical Principles and Practice

Review

Free Access

Antifungal Chemotherapeutics

Krcmery Jr. V.C.

Author affiliations

Department of Pharmacology, St Elizabeth University, School of Health Care, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Corresponding Author

Vladimir C. Krcmery, Jr., FACP, FRCP

Department of Clinical Pharmacology

St. Elisabeth Cancer Institute, Heydukova 10

SK–81250 Bratislava (Slovak Republic)

Tel./Fax +421 2 5292 4308, E-Mail vladimir.krcmery@spamba.sk

Related Articles for ""

Med Princ Pract 2005;14:125–135

Abstract

This review addresses trends in outcome and risk factors for invasive fungal infections, current antifungal agents and new therapeutic strategies. Current prospects for new therapies rest upon caspofungin, the first of a new class of antifungal molecules, the echinocandins, and new extended-spectrum azoles, voriconazole, posaconazole and ravuconazole. Approval by the Food and Drug Administration of the USA and the European Medicine Agency was given in 2001–2002 to voriconazole and caspofungin. Voriconazole clearly demonstrated a decrease in mortality in invasive aspergillosis and fusariosis fungal infections.

© 2005 S. Karger AG, Basel




Related Articles:


References

  1. Rex JH, Pfaller MA, Galgiani JN, Bartlett MS, Espinel-Ingroff A, Ghannoum MA, Lancaster M, Odds FC, Rinaldi MG, Walsh TJ, Barry AL: Development of interpretive breakpoints for antifungal susceptibility testing: Conceptual framework and analysis of in vitro-in vivo correlation data for fluconazole, itraconazole, and Candida infections. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:235–247.
  2. Bille J, Glauser MP: Evaluation of the susceptibility of pathogenic Candida species to fluconazole. Fluconazole Global Susceptibility Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;16:924–928.
  3. Nguyen MH, Clancy CJ, Yu VL, Yu YC, Morris AJ, Snydman DR, Sutton DA, Rinaldi MG: Do in vitro susceptibility data predict the microbiologic response to amphotericin B? Results of a prospective study of patients with Candida fungemia. J Infect Dis 1998;177:425–430.
  4. Ruhnke M: Fluconazole resistance in oropharyngal candidiasis in HIV patients. Infection 1995;24:83.
  5. Rex JH, Pfaller MA, Barry AL, Nelson PW, Webb CD: Antifungal susceptibility testing of isolates from a randomized, multicenter trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B as treatment of nonneutropenic patients with candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39:40–44.
  6. Tumbarello M, Cardalola G, Taconelli E, Morace G, Posteraro B, Cauda R, Ortma L: Analysis of the risk factors associated with the emergence of azole-resistant oral candidiasis in the course of HIV infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996;38:691–699.
  7. Krcmery V, Spanik S, Kunova A, Trupl J, Grausova S, Krupova I, Mateicka F, Pichnova E, Grey E, Sabo A: Nosocomial Candida krusei fungemia in cancer patients: Report of 10 cases and review. J Chemother 1999;11:131–136.
  8. Krcmery V, Krupova I, Denning DW: Invasive yeast infections other than Candida spp. in acute leukaemia. J Hosp Infect 1999;41:181–194.
  9. Krcmery V, Mrazova M, Kunova A, Grey E, Mardiak J, Jurga L, Sabo A, Sufliarsky J, Sevcikova L, Sorkovska D, West D, Trupl J, Novotny J, Mateicka F: Nosocomial candidaemia due to species other Candida albicans in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1999;7:428–431.
  10. Krcmery V, Krupova I, Mateicka F, Jurga L, Sulcova M, Spanik S, Kunova A, Novotny J: Candida glabrata fungemia in a tertiary cancer institution in Slovakia. J Infect Chemother 1999;5:163–167.
  11. Krcmery V, Sejnova D, Pichnova E: Breakthrough Candida tropicalis fungemia during ketoconazole prophylaxis in cancer patients. Acta Oncol 1999;38:663–665.
  12. Kovacicova G, Krcmery V, and the Fungemia Study Group: Antifungal susceptibility of 262 blood stream yeast isolates from mixed cancer and non-cancer patient population: Is there a correlation between in vitro resistance to fluconazole and outcome of fungemia? J Infect Chemother 2000;6:216–221.
  13. Pfaller MA, and the Mycoses Study Group: Antifungal susceptibility of bloodstream isolates from 32 US centres. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999;40:232–238.
  14. Viscoli C, Girmenia C, Marinus A, Collette L, Martino P, Vandercam B, Doyen C, Lebeau B, Spence D, Krcmery V, De Pauw B, Meunier F: Candidemia in cancer patients: A prospective, multicenter surveillance study by the Invasive Fungal Infection Group (IFIG) of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC). Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:1071–1079.
  15. Krcmery V: Candida parapsilosis fungemia in cancer patients. Neoplasma 1999;46:32.
  16. Wingard, JR: Importance of Candida species other than C. albicans as pathogens in oncology patients. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:115–125.
  17. Abi Said D, Anaissie E, Uzun O, Raad I, Pinzcowski H, Vartivarian S: The epidemiology of hematogenous candidiasis caused by different Candida species. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:1122–1128.
  18. Shah PM: Personalized antifungal susceptibility testing. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999;44:291.
  19. Troillet N, Durussel C, Bille J, Glauser MP, Chave JP: Correlation between in vitro susceptibility of Candida albicans and fluconazole-resistant oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV-infected patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;12:911–915.
  20. Patterson RM, Ackerman GL: Renal tubular acidosis due to amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Arch Intern Med 1971;127:241–244.
  21. Douglas JB, Healy JK: Nephrotoxic effects of amphotericin B, including renal tubular acidosis. Am J Med 1969;46:154–162.
  22. McCurdy DK, Frederic M, Elkinton JR: Renal tubular acidosis due to amphotericin B. N Engl J Med 1968;278:124–130.
  23. Burgess JL, Birchall R: Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B, with emphasis on changes in tubular function. Am J Med 1972;53:77–84.
  24. Smith SR, Galloway MJ, Reilly JT, Davies JM: Amiloride prevents amphotericin B related hypokalaemia in neutropenic patients. J Clin Pathol 1988;41:494–497.
  25. Pathak A, Pien FD, Carvalho L: Amphotericin B use in a community hospital, with special emphasis on side effects. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:334–338.
  26. Walker RJ, Duggin GG: Drug nephrotoxicity. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1988;28:331–345.
  27. Heyman SN, Stillman IE, Brezis M, Epstein FH, Spokes K, Rosen S: Chronic amphotericin nephropathy: Morphometric, electron microscopic, and functional studies. J Am Soc Nephrol 1993;4:69–80.
  28. Albengres E, Le Louet H, Tillement JP: Systemic antifungal agents: Drug interactions of clinical significance. Drug Saf 1998;18:83–97.
  29. Hoitsma AJ, Wetzels JF, Koene RA: Drug-induced nephrotoxicity: Aetiology, clinical features, and management. Drug Saf 1991;6:131–147.
  30. Cheng JT, Witty RT, Robinson RR, Yarger WE: Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity: Increased renal resistance and tubule permeability. Kidney Int 1982;22:626–633.
  31. Fisher MA, Talbot GH, Maislin G, McKeon BP, Tynan KP, Strom BL: Risk factors for amphotericin B-associated nephrotoxicity. Am J Med 1989;87:547–552.
  32. Stein RS, Alexander JA: Sodium protects against nephrotoxicity in patients receiving amphotericin B. Am J Med Sci 1989;298:299–304.
  33. Llanos A, Cieza J, Bernardo J, Echevarria J, Biaggoni I, Sabra R, Branch RA: Effect of salt supplementation on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int 1991;40:302–308.
  34. Chertow GM, Levy EM, Hammermeister KE, Grover F, Daley, J: Independent association between acute renal failure and mortality following cardiac surgery. Am J Med 1998;104:343–348.
  35. Zager RA, O’Quigley J, Zager BK, et al: Acute renal failure following bone marrow transplantation: A retrospective study of 272 patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1989;13:210–216.
  36. Coukell AJ, Brogden RN: Liposomal amphotericin B: Therapeutic use in the management of fungal infections and visceral leishmaniasis. Drugs 1998;55:585–612.
  37. Boswell GW, Buell D, Bekersky I: AmBisome (liposomal amphotericin B): A comparative review. J Clin Pharmacol 1998;38:583–592.
  38. Walsh TJ, Finberg HV, Arndt C: Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. N Engl J Med 1999;340:764–771.
  39. Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM: A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1325–1330.
  40. Polak A, Hartman PG: Antifungal chemotherapy – Are we winning? Prog Drug Res 1991;37:181–269.
  41. Walsh TJ, de Pauw B, Anaissie E, Martino P: Recent advances in the epidemiology, prevention and treatment of invasive fungal infections in neutropenic patients. J Med Vet Mycol 1994;32(suppl 1):33–51.
  42. Bates DW, Su L, Yu DT: Mortality and costs of acute renal failure associated with amphotericin B therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:686–693.
  43. Polak A: The past, present and future of antimycotic combination therapy. Mycoses 1999;42:355–370.
  44. Arevalo MP, Arias A, Andreu A: Fluconazole, itraconazole and ketoconazole in vitro activity against Candida spp. J Chemother 1994;6:226–229.
  45. Van’t Wout JW: Fluconazole treatment of candidal infections caused by non-albicans Candida species. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996;15:238–242.
  46. Goa KL, Barradell LB: Fluconazole. An update of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in major superficial and systemic mycoses in immunocompromised patients. Drugs 1995;50:658–690.
  47. Kaplan B, Rabinerson D, Gibor Y: Single-dose systemic oral fluconazole for the treatment of vaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1997;57:281–286.
  48. Finlay PM, Richardson MD, Robertson AG: A comparative study of the efficacy of fluconazole and amphotericin B in the treatment of oropharyngeal candidosis in patients undergoing radiotherapy for head and neck tumors. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1996;34:23–25.
  49. Perry CM, Whittington R, McTavish D: Fluconazole. An update of its antimicrobial activity, pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in vaginal candidiasis. Drugs 1995;49:984–1006.
  50. Anaissie E, Bodey GP, Kantarjan H: Fluconazole therapy for chronic disseminated candidiasis in patients with leukemia and prior amphotericin B therapy. Am J Med 1991;91:142–150.
  51. Ikemoto H: A clinical study of fluconazole for the treatment of deep mycoses. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1989;12:2395–2475.
    External Resources
  52. Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM, Pappas PG, van der Horst CM, Edwards JE, Washburn RG, Scheld WM, Karchmer AW, Dine AP, et al: A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1325–1330.
  53. Debruyne D: Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in superficial and systemic mycoses. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997;33:52–77.
  54. Samonis G, Roslton K, Karl C, Miller P, Bodey GP: Prophylaxis of oropharyngeal candidiasis with fluconazole. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12 (suppl 3):S369–S373.
  55. Goodman JL, Winston DJ, Greenfield RA: A controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent fungal infections in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992;326:845–851.
  56. Philpott-Howard JN, Wade JJ, Mufti GJ: Randomized comparison of oral fluconazole versus oral polyenes for the prevention of fungal infection in patients at risk of neutropenia. Multicentre Study Group. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31:973–984.
  57. Mucke R, Kaben U, Libera T: Fluconazole prophylaxis in patients with head and neck tumours undergoing radiation and radiochemotherapy. Mycoses 1998;41:421–423.
  58. Van Burik JH, Leisenring W, Myerson D, Hackman RC, Shulman HM, Sale GE, Bowden RA, McDonald GB: The effect of prophylactic fluconazole on the clinical spectrum of fungal diseases in bone marrow transplant recipients with special attention to hepatic candidiasis. An autopsy study of 355 patients. Medicine 1998;77:246–254.
  59. Longman LP, Hibbert SA, Martin MV: Efficacy of fluconazole in prophylaxis and treatment of experimental Candida endocarditis. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12(suppl 3):S294–S298.
  60. Nguyen MH, Nguyen ML, Lu VL: Candida prosthetic valve endocarditis: Prospective study of six cases and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22:262–267.
  61. Viscoli C, Castagnola E, Fioredda F: Fluconazole in the treatment of candidiasis in immunocompromised children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:365–367.
  62. Fasano C, O’Keefe J, Gibbs D: Fluconazole treatment of children with severe fungal infections not treatable with conventional agents. Eur J Clin Microb Infect Dis 1994;13:344–347.
  63. Flynn PM, Cunningham CK, Kerkering T, San Jorge AR, Peters VB, Pitel PA, Harris J, Gilbert G, Castagnaro L, Robinson P: Oropharyngeal candidiasis in immunocompromised children: A randomized multicenter study of orally administered fluconazole suspension versus nystatin. J Pediatr 1995;127:322–328.
  64. Presterl E, Graninger W: Efficacy and safety of fluconazole in the treatment of systemic fungal infections in pediatric patients. Multicentre Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:347–351.
  65. Cap J, Mojzesova A, Kayserova E, Bubanska E, Hatiar K, Trupl J, Krcmery V: Fluconazole in children: First experience with prophylaxis in chemotherapy-induced neutropenia in paediatric patients with cancer. Chemotherapy 1993;39:438–442.
  66. Ninane J: A multicentre study of fluconazole versus oral polyenes in the prevention of fungal infection in children with hematological or oncological malignancies. Multicentre Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:330–337.
  67. Driessen M, Ellis JB, Muwazi F, De Villiers FP: The treatment of systemic candidiasis in neonates with oral fluconazole. Ann Trop Paediatr 1997;17:263–271.
  68. Groll AH, Just-Nuebling G, Kurz M, Mueller C, Nowak-Goettel U, Schwabe B, Shah PM, Komhuber B: Fluconazole versus nystatin in the prevention of candida infections in children and adolescents undergoing remission induction or consolidation chemotherapy for cancer. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997;40:885–862.
  69. Wenzl TG, Schefels J, Hornchen H, Skopnik H: Pharmacokinetics of oral fluconazole in premature infants. Eur J Pediatr 1998;157:661–662.
  70. Martin MV: The use of fluconazole and itraconazole in the treatment of Candida albicans infections: A review. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999;44:429–437.
  71. Haria M, Bryson HM, Goa KL: Itraconazole. A reappraisal of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in the management of superficial fungal infections. Drugs 1996;51:585–620.
  72. Rees T, Phillips R: Multicenter comparison of one-day oral therapy with fluconazole or itraconazole in vaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1992;37(suppl 1):33S–38S.
  73. Rongioletti F, Robert E, Tripodi S: Treatment of onychomycosis with itraconazole. J Dermatolog Treat 1992;2:145–146.
    External Resources
  74. Hoang A: Caspofungin acetate: An antifungal agent. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2001;58:1206–1214.
  75. Keating GM, Jarvis B: Caspofungin. Drugs 2001;61:1121–1129.
  76. Bartizal K, Gill CJ, Abruzzo GK, Flattery AM, Kong L, Scott PM, Smith JG, Leighton CE, Bouffard A, Dropinski JF, Balkovec J: In vitro preclinical evaluation studies with the echinocandin antifungal MK-0991. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:2326–2332.
  77. Groll AH, Gullick BM, Petraitiene R, Petraitis V, Candelario M, Piscitelli SC, Walsh TJ: Compartmental pharmacokinetics of the antifungal echinocandin caspofungin (MK-0991) in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:596–600.
  78. Walsh T, Denning DW, Patterson IMF: Update of the multicentric uncomparative studies of caspofungin (abstract M 868). ICAAC 2002, San Diego, 27–30th September 2002.
  79. Stone JA, Holland S, Li S: Effect of hepatic insufficiency on the pharmacokinetics of caspofungin (abstract A-14). 41st ICAAC, Chicago, 2001.
  80. Villanueva A, Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, Berman RS: A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin for the treatment of candidal esophagitis. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:1529–1535.
  81. Maertens J, Raad I: Multicenter, non-comparative study to evaluate safety and efficacy of caspofungin in adults with invasive aspergillosis refractory or intolerant to amphotericin B, AMB lipid formulations, or azoles (abstract 1103). 40th ICAAC, Toronto, 2000.
  82. Lin SJ, Schram J, Teutsch SM: Aspergillosis case-fatality rate: Systematic review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:358–366.
  83. Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, Colombo AL, Thompson-Moya L; Smietana J, Lupinacci R, Sable C, Kartsonis N, Perfect J; Caspofungin Invasive Candidiasis Study Group: Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B FOR invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:2020–2029.
  84. Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, Lopes-Colombo A: Caspofungin vs amphotericin B deoxycholate in the treatment of invasive candidiasis in neutropenic and nonneutropenic patients: A multi-centre, randomized, double-blind study (abstract 0237). 12th ECCMID, Milan, 2002.
  85. Hiemenz J, Raad I, Boogaerts M, Maertens J: Efficacy of caspofungin as salvage therapy for invasive aspergillosis compared to standard therapy in a historical cohort (poster 22). Focus on Fungal Infections 11, Washington , 2001.
  86. Oakley KL, Moore CB, Denning DW: In vitro activity of voriconazole against Aspergillus spp. and comparison with itraconazole and amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;42:91–94.
  87. Verweij PE, Mensink M, Rijs AJ, Donnelley JP, Meis JF, Denning DW: In vitro activities of amphotericin B, itraconazole, and voriconazole against 150 clinical and environmental Aspergillus fumigatus isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;42:389–392.
  88. Cuenca-Estrella M, Rodriguez-Tudela J-L, Mellado E: Comparison of the in vitro activity of voriconazole (UK-109,496), itraconazole and amphotericin B against clinical isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;42:531–533.
  89. Murphy M, Bernard EM, Ishimaru T, Armstrong D: Activity of voriconazole (UK-109,496) against clinical isolates of Aspergillus species and its effectiveness in an experimental model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:696–698.
  90. Martin MV, Yates J, Hitchcock CA: Comparison of voriconazole (UK-109,496) and itraconazole in prevention and treatment of Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agent Chemother 1997;41:13–16.
  91. George D, Miniter P, Andriole VT: Efficacy of UK-109,496, a new azole antifungal agent, in an experimental model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:86–91.
  92. Kirkpatrick WR, McAtee RK, Forthergill AW: Efficacy of voriconazole in a guinea pig model of disseminated invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:2865–2868.
  93. Denning DW, Marinus A, Cohen J and the EORTC Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group: An EORTC multicentre prospective survey of invasive aspergillosis in cancer patients: Diagnosis and therapeutic outcome. J Infect 1998;37:173–180.
  94. Denning DW, Lee JY, Hostetler JS, Pappas P, Kauffman CA, Dewsnup DH, Galgiani JN, Graybill JR, Sugar AM, Catanzaro A, et al: NIAID Mycoses Study Group multicenter trial of oral itraconazole therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Am J Med 1994;91:135–144.
  95. Schwartz S, Milatovic D, Thiel E: Successful treatment of cerebral aspergillosis with a novel triazole (voriconazole) in a patient with acute leukaemia. Br J Haematol 1997;97:663–665.
  96. Denning DW, Ribaud P, Milpied N, Calliot D, Herbrecht R, Thiel E, Haas A, Ruhnke M, Lode H: Efficacy and safety of voriconazole in the treatment of acute invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:563–571.
  97. Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Greene RE, Oestmann JW, Kern WV, Marr KA, Ribaud P, Lortholary O, Sylvester R, Rubin RH, Wingard JR, Stark P, Durand C, Caillot D, Thiel E, Chandrasekar PH, Hodges MR, Schlamm HT, Troke PF, de Pauw B: Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med 2002;347:408–415.
  98. Walsh TJ, Pappas P, Winston DJ, Lazarus HM, Petersen F, Raffalli J, Yanovich S, Stiff P, Greenberg R, Donowitz G, Schuster M, Reboli A, Wingard J, Arndt C, Reinhardt J, Hadley S, Finberg R, Laverdiere M, Perfect J, Garber G, Fioritoni G, Anaissie E, Lee J: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Voriconazole compared with liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with neutropenia and persistent fever. N Engl J Med 2002;346:225–234.
  99. Law D, Moore CB, Denning DW: Activity of 5CH 56592 compared with those of fluconazole and itraconazole against Candida spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:2310–2311.
  100. Galgiani JN, Lewis ML: In vitro studies of activities of antifungal triazoles SCH56592 and itraconazole against Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and other pathogenic yeasts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:180–183.
  101. Espinel-Ingroff A: Comparison of in vitro activities of the new triazoles SCH56592 and the echinocandins MK-0991 (L-743,872) and LY303366 against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi and yeasts. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:2950–2956.
  102. Perfect JR, Cox GM, Dodge RK, Schell WA: In vitro and in vivo efficacy of the azole SCH56592 against Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:1910–1913.
  103. Oakley KL, Morrissey G, Denning DW: Efficacy of SCH-56592 in a temporarily neutropenic murine model of invasive aspergillosis with an itraconazole-susceptible and an itraconazole-resistant isolate of Aspergillus fumigatus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:1504–1507.
  104. Lutz JE, Clemons KV, Aristizabal BH: Activity of the triazoles SCH 56592 against disseminated murine coccidioidomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:1558– 1561.
  105. Graybill JR, Bocanegra R, Najvar LK: Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and azole antifungal therapy in murine aspergillosis: role of Immune suppression. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:2467–2473.
  106. Graybill JR, Bocanegra R, Najvar LK: SCH56592 treatment of murine invasive aspergillosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;42:539–542.
  107. Pfaller M: In vitro susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of rare Candida spp. against ravuconazole (abstract 1223). ICAAC, Chicago, September 14–17th , 2003.
  108. Uchida K, Yokota N, Yamaguchi H: In vitro antifungal activity of pocasonazole against various pathogenic fungi. Int Antimcrob Agents 2001;18:167–172.
  109. Ding JC, Bauer M, Diamond DM: Effect of severity of meningitis on fungicidal activity of flucytosine combined with fluconazole in a murine model of cryptococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother1997;40:2178–2182.
  110. Larsen RA, Bozette SA, Jones BE: Fluconazole combined with flucytosine for treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:741–745.
  111. Filler SG, Edwards JE: When and how to treat serious candidal infections: Concept and controversies. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis 1995;15:1–8.
  112. Graybill JR: Can we agree on the treatment of candidiasis? Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:60–63.
  113. Graybill JR: The future of antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22(suppl 2):166–177.
  114. Pucetti P, Menacci A, Cencei E, Spaccapelo R, Mosci P, Enssle KH: Cure of murine candidiasis by recombinant soluble interleukin. J Infect Dis 1994;269:1325.
  115. Walsh TJ, Van Cutsem J, Polak A, Graybill JR: Immunomodulation and antifungal therapy of experimental invasive candidosis, histoplasmosis and aspergillosis: Recent advances and concepts. J Med Vet Mycol 1992;30(suppl 1):223–240.
  116. Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD: Practice guidelines for the treatment of Candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:662–678.
  117. EORTC International Antimicrobial Therapy Cooperative Group: Empiric antifungal therapy in febrile granulocytopenic patients. Am J Med 1989;86:668–672.
  118. Annaissie EJ, Rex JH, Uzun O: Predictors of adverse outcome in cancer patients with candidaemia. Am J Med 1998;104:238–245.
  119. British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy Working Party: Management of deep Candida infection in surgical and intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med 1994;20:522–528.
  120. Eggimann P, Francioli P, Bille J: Fluconazole prophylaxis prevents intra-abdominal candidiasis in high-risk surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1066–1072.
  121. Munoz P, Burillo A, Bouza E: Criteria used when initiating antifungal therapy against Candida spp. in the intensive care unit. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000;15:83–90.
  122. Fichtenbaum CJ, German M, Dunagan WC, Fraser VJ, Medoff G, Diego J, Powderly WG: A pilot study of the management of uncomplicated candidemia with a standardized protocol of amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:1551–1556.
  123. Cap J, Mojzesova A, Kayserova E, Bubanska E, Hatiar K, Trupl J, Krcmery V Jr: Fluconazole in children: First experience with prophylaxis in chemotherapy-induced neutropenia in pediatric patients with cancer. Chemotherapy 1993;39:438–442.
  124. Krcmery V, Soltes L, Cap J: Fluconazole in prevention of fungal infections in cancer children. Int J Clin Exp Chemother 1992;4:13–15.
  125. Fasano J: The use of fluconazole in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;10:12.
  126. Huttova M, Filka J, Krcmery V: Fungal infections in neonates. J Publ Health 2001;4:133–140.
  127. Kossoff EH, Buescher ES, Karlowicz MG: Candidemia in a neonatal intensive care unit: Trends during fifteen years and clinical features of 111 cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:504–508.
  128. Rowen JL, Tate JM: Management of neonatal candidiasis. Neonatal Candidiasis Study Group. Pediatric Infect Dis J 1998;17:1007–1011.
  129. Walsh TJ, Seidel NL, Arndt C, Hartus RE, Dinubile MJ, Reboli A, Hiemenz J, Chanock SJ: Amphotericin B lipid complex in pediatric patients with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:702–708.
  130. Starke JR, Mason EO Jr, Kramer WG, Kaplan SL: Pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B in infants and children. J Infect Dis 1987;155:766–774.
  131. Chen YC, Chang SC, Luh KT, Hsieh WC: Stable susceptibility of Candida blood isolates to fluconazole despite increasing use during the past 10 years. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;52:71–77.
  132. Canton E, Peman J, Viudes A, Quindos G, Gobernado M, Espinel-Ingroff A: Minimum fungicidal concentrations of amphotericin B for bloodstream Candida species. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2003;45:203–206.
  133. Steinbach WJ, Perfect JR: Newer antifungal therapy for emerging fungal pathogens. Int J Infect Dis 2003;7:5–20.

Article / Publication Details

First-Page Preview
Abstract of Review

Received: August 09, 2003
Accepted: December 09, 2003
Published online: April 29, 2005
Issue release date: May – June

Number of Print Pages: 11
Number of Figures: 0
Number of Tables: 0

ISSN: 1011-7571 (Print)
eISSN: 1423-0151 (Online)

For additional information: https://www.karger.com/MPP


Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer

Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
TOP